An early style of danceable piano blues characterized by a rolling bass line and a propulsive eighth-note rhythm. When Mondrian arrived in New York in 1940, boogie-woogie was enjoying a commercial revival and being adapted for jazz combos and big bands. Mondrian preferred the authentic piano version, and often went to the Café Society Downtown to hear the Boogie Woogie Trio of pianists Meade "Lux" Lewis, Pete Johnson, and Albert Ammons. Mondrian told Sidney Janis that his new use of color in New York gave his work "more boogie-woogie."
butt-join
A simple method of joining two pieces of wood in which the end of one piece is attached to the side of another, resulting in either a horizontal or a vertical join at the meeting point. Mondrian's subframes and strip frames are generally butt-joined but may be diagonally joined, especially before 1927.
canvas
Fabric that is used as a support for painting. Different types of canvas can be distinguished by the density of the canvas weave.
cracks
Breaks in a ground layer, paint, or varnish. The pattern or series of visible cracks is called crackle, craquelure, or crack pattern. Cracks can be caused by aging, drying, and mechanical factors, or by a combination of these. Age cracks can result from dimensional changes in the stretcher, canvas, or panel support, placing stress on any or all layers of the painting, which lose elasticity with age. Drying cracks are caused by the evaporation of volatile paint components and the consequent shrinkage and splitting of the paint; they are located in the upper paint layer(s), and need not correspond with cracks in the lower paint layers or ground layer. Drying cracks can also be caused by siccatives or dryers, by painting "lean over fat" (that is, applying paint that is relatively poor in medium over layers that are rich in medium), by painting over a paint layer that is not fully dried, or by using an overly smooth ground. Mechanical or impact cracks result from extraneous causes, such as blows or the keying of a canvas.
cross-section
A small paint sample that usually consists of multiple paint layers. Cross-sections are studied under the microscope to determine the layered structure of the paint film, but they can also be used for the identification of pigments through quantitative instrumental analyses such as electron probe microanalysis.
Dudensing, F. Valentine
F. Valentine Dudensing, owner of the Valentine Gallery in New York, became Mondrian's sole U.S. dealer in 1936. Mondrian sent Dudensing a number of works on consignment over the next few years. After his arrival in New York in October 1940, Mondrian had two exhibitions at the Valentine Gallery, the first in January 1942, and the second in March 1943. Most of the transatlantic paintings were shown in these exhibitions for the first time in their final states.
electromagnetic spectrum
Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation; only a narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to the human eye (from about 380 to 750 nanometers). Forms of electromagnetic radiation are distinguished by their wavelengths and range from long radio waves to ultra short gamma rays. Forms of electromagnetic radiation invisible to the human eye that are used in the examination of paintings are infrared light, ultraviolet light, and X-rays. Infrared radiation has a slightly longer and ultraviolet a slightly shorter wavelength than the visible region on the spectrum. X-rays have a much shorter wavelength than visible light.
fill
A substance placed in a loss in the paint and/or ground layer in order to build the area up before inpainting. Fills can be composed of various materials, including gesso and wax.
Glarner, Fritz
The Swiss-born painter Fritz Glarner (1899-1972) emigrated to the U.S. in 1936, where he became a close friend and follower of Mondrian. In early 1943, Glarner took numerous photographs of Mondrian in his studio. These offer dramatic images of the artist at work and show several paintings in progress. After Mondrian's death in February 1944, Glarner helped Harry Holtzman make an important photographic record of the studio.
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ground layer
The first layer applied to a canvas, which provides a relatively smooth surface to paint on and also serves as a sealant for the porous canvas.
Holtzman, Harry
Artist Harry Holtzman (1912-1987) traveled to Paris to meet Mondrian in 1934. On his return they began a steady correspondence. Holtzman arranged and financed Mondrian's immigration to New York in October 1940, and he supported the artist in his last years. Mondrian, who was childless, made Holtzman his sole heir.
impasto
Brushwork or other intentional buildup of paint that is readily visible to the naked eye. In New York, Mondrian painted over the white fields and the color fields of many transatlantic paintings to increase their impasto. Impasto often loses some of its definition as a result of lining.
infrared (IR) light
Invisible radiation, located just beyond the red light in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that can be used to detect underdrawings and compositional changes below the paint surface. In the infrared examination of paintings, radiation from the near-infrared region (about 750-2,500 nanometers) is detected.
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infrared photography (IRP)
Photography that registers infrared light. This requires a special film and lens filter, but can be done with a normal camera. IR films are sensitive up to around 900 nanometers, or just beyond the visible range in the electromagnetic spectrum. Digital cameras, some of which are more sensitive than IR film, can also be used for this purpose. Before the invention of infrared reflectography in the late 1960s, IRP was the only method to reveal underdrawings, for which it is only partially successful.
infrared reflectography (IRR)
Infrared reflectography was developed to overcome the limitations of infrared photography (IRP) in revealing underdrawing by penetrating farther into the infrared part of the spectrum. Recent digital cameras are equipped with infrared detectors that are sensitive up to 1,500-2,500 nanometers; filters can be used to further regulate the wavelength of study. With IRR, the paint surface is penetrated to a much greater extent than in IRP, although true blacks will remain opaque under infrared. Because of the relatively low resolution of IRR systems, a large number of close-up images (infrared reflectograms or IRRs) are necessary to document a painting.
inpainting
Retouching executed by a conservator to reduce the visibility of a damaged area in the paint film. To assure the reversibility of a treatment, inpaintings should be placed over an intermediate varnish layer. Unlike overpaintings, inpaintings are confined to the area of loss. (see also overpainting)
keys
Small wooden wedges placed in the joints of the bars of a stretcher. By "keying out" the stretcher a sagging canvas can be tightened, but this can result in cracking of the paint film.
lining
The application of an auxiliary canvas to the back of the original canvas to provide additional structural stability. Methods of lining vary and are distinguished by the way the new canvas is adhered to the original. In a loose lining, the canvases are not physically attached; in a glue lining, they are glued together; in a wax lining, both canvases are impregnated with wax, often mixed with resin, and in a strip lining, only a strip of new canvas is adhered to the edges of the original canvas. Cold linings do not expose the paint film to high temperatures. Linings are often the only way to stabilize a painting, but sometimes they cause considerable damage.
medium
Liquid vehicle or material in paint in which pigment particles are suspended and bound.
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overpainting
Area of retouch thats extend beyond the borders of a loss and covers original paint are called overpaintings. In Mondrians monochrome color fields it is often difficult to match the color and texture of inpaintings with that of the original surface, and restorers sometimes overpainted larger areas to facilitate visual integration. (see also inpainting)
paint sample
A small sample of the paint surface taken for pigment or medium analyses.
photomacrograph (or macrograph)
Close-up photograph.
photomicrograph (or micrograph)
Photograph taken through a microscope.
pigments
Colorants that, together with medium, make paint. Pigments that were used by Mondrian are lead white, zinc white, titanium white, bone black, cadmium red, cadmium yellow, and artificial ultramarine, among others.
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raking light
Illumination used for the topographical study of a painting's surface using extreme cast shadows. When a painting is illuminated from one side, with the light source placed almost parallel to the picture plane, features such as undulations, brushwork, and other surface qualities will be revealed that otherwise remain invisible.
retouch
See inpainting and overpainting
specular light
Illumination directed toward a painting at such an angle that it reflects off the surface directly into the eyes. These reflections, normally avoided in photography, can show subtle differences in the gloss or matteness of the paint surface.
stereomicroscope
A microscope that facilitates examination of paintings at relatively low magnifications (10-50x), revealing cracks, retouching, and other surface details. The use of two oculars provides a stereo, three-dimensional view. Photomicrographs can be taken through the microscope when a camera attachment is available, but only through one ocular, recording a two-dimensional view.
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stretcher
A framework, usually of wood, to which the canvas is attached. Unlike a rigid strainer, the size of a stretcher can be slightly altered with keys. All original stretchers encountered in this research project were five-member wooden stretchers, with a central horizontal bar.
strip-frame
A framing construction often used by Mondrian that consists of wooden strips, either horizontally or vertically butt-joined. In Mondrian's work, the strip-frame is slightly set back, and so the picture plane lies in front of the frame, with the tacking edges of the canvas partly visible. Mondrian would often combine strip-frames with subframes, and sometimes he used double strip-frames. From 1937 onward, he generally used a recessed masking ribbon instead of a strip-frame.
subframe
A frame construction typical for Mondrian from 1929 on, consisting of wooden boards, either horizontally or vertically butt-joined, that extend both under the stretcher and beyond it, adding support and providing a kind of vertical pedestal for the painting.
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tacking edges or tacking margins
The sides of a canvas where nails, tacks or staples attach it to the sides of the stretcher. These edges are an integral part of Mondrian's abstract works, and color fields and lines often continue over the fold onto the tacking edges. Mondrian covered nail heads with recessed strip-frames, and later with masking ribbons.
transmitted infrared imaging (TIR)
See infrared reflectography. In TIR the light source is situated behind the canvas and the camera in front (or vice versa), thus using transmitted rather than reflected infrared radiation.
transmitted infrared photography (TIRP)
See infrared photography. In TIRP the light source is situated behind the canvas and the camera in front (or vice versa), thus using transmitted rather than reflected infrared radiation.
transmitted light photography
Photography in which the light source is situated behind the canvas and the camera in front (or vice versa), thus using transmitted rather than reflected light.
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turnover
The part of the canvas that is neither on the surface nor on the tacking margin, but behind the stretcher.
ultraviolet (UV) light
Radiation just below the blue-violet portion of the range visible to the human eye in the electromagnetic spectrum, which excites fluorescence of materials on the surface of a painting. Various colors of paint and layers of varnish fluoresce differently, allowing for the detection of areas of cleaning, retouching, and overpainting. Recently applied paint usually absorbs UV light and appears dark, while old varnish often fluoresces strongly.
This fluorescence, at least the part in the visible range of the spectrum, can be studied with the naked eye and documented with photography. Examination under UV light can sometimes provide additional information in identifying certain pigments, especially zinc white and cadmium pigments. UV light is also used in the study of cross-sections under the microscope.
ultraviolet light and Mondrian's black lines
Mondrian varnished his black lines but not the rest of his surfaces. Mondrian's varnishes have not yet been identified, but in Europe he probably used a natural resin varnish which, when aged, fluoresces strongly under ultraviolet light. It is possible that he used a different varnish in New York, causing the lower level of fluorescence in the newer linear elements. However variations in fluorescence can also be observed in European works that were not reworked at a later date.
Another explanation for the differences in fluorescence might be that Mondrian, after reworking a painting, varnished all black lines, both the newly added lines (and parts of lines) and the older ones. Thus the older lines would have received an extra layer of varnish, which might cause them to fluorescence more strongly.
In the newly added linear elements, on the other hand, the varnish would have partly 'sunk' into the matrix of the paint, especially if it was not fully dry. In addition, these lines were applied on scraped canvas, from which the priming layer was removed, resulting in a bleeding through of the paint onto the reverse of the canvas, which might in turn have promoted the absorption of varnish by the paint. This feature will probably be better understood when more material on Mondrian's varnishes becomes available.
varnish
Coating that protects a painting's surface, saturates its colors, and provides an even gloss. A wide variety of materials is used to make varnishes.
von Wiegand, Charmion
Artist and art critic Charmion von Wiegand (1898-1983) first met Mondrian in New York in April 1941. Up to his death in February 1944, she visited Mondrian in his studio 34 times. Von Wiegand closely watched him at work, and also edited and translated his writings. Her unpublished journals are an important source of information on the transatlantic paintings.
x-radiography
A method of analysis using a highly penetrating form of invisible radiation. In the electromagnetic spectrum, X-rays are located between the ultraviolet and the gamma rays and are thus much shorter than light waves visible to the human eye. Individual materials absorb X-rays to different degrees, and absorbency patterns can be registered on a special film, known as an X-radiograph, which can be used to study the materials, internal structure, and condition of a painting. To obtain an X-radiograph, the painting is placed between an X-ray source and the film. If the film is placed directly against the painting's surface, the X-radiograph will provide a precise 1:1 image. Areas of paint that contain elements with a high atomic weight (such as lead white) will absorb the X-rays to a greater extent than others and will block the X-rays from darkening the film, thus appearing as light areas on the X-radiograph.
End of Glossary
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